Volume 40 - Article 51 | Pages 1501–1528  

Parental leave policies and continued childbearing in Iceland, Norway, and Sweden

By Ann-Zofie Duvander , Trude Lappegård, Synøve N. Andersen, Ólöf Garðarsdóttir, Gerda Neyer, Ida Viklund

Abstract

Background: Demographic theories maintain that family policies that support gender equality may lead to higher fertility levels in postindustrial societies. This phenomenon is often exemplified by the situation in the Nordic countries. These countries have parental leave policies that promote a gender-equal work-care balance for both parents, and these countries have comparatively high fertility levels. However, very little is known about the association between these policies and childbearing at the individual level.

Objective: We explore how fathers’ parental leave use is related to subsequent childbearing in Iceland, Norway, and Sweden, and we examine whether differences exist in childbearing outcomes among fathers who use no leave, those who use only the leave allocated to them by the policy, and those who use more than that amount of leave.

Methods: The study is based on 15 years of administrative register data on parental leave use in Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. Event history analysis is used to follow parental couples from the end of the parental leave use for their first or second child until a new birth takes place.

Results: There is a positive association between fathers’ leave use and second births in all three countries, while there is a negative association between fathers’ parental leave use and third births in Norway and Sweden. Taking more than the ‘father’s quota’ does not consistently increase the second-birth intensities.

Conclusions: The two-child norm is closely connected to the norm of fathers being engaged in child rearing, while only a select group of fathers continue with a third child.

Contribution: The study shows that the association between gender equality and fertility differs between countries and by the parity of the child. It also shows the need to differentiate between policy-induced gender-equal behavior and gender-egalitarian parenting.

Author's Affiliation

• Ann-Zofie Duvander - Mittuniversitetet, Sweden EMAIL
• Trude Lappegård - Universitetet i Oslo, Norway EMAIL
• Synøve N. Andersen - Statistisk sentralbyrå (Statistics Norway), Norway EMAIL
• Ólöf Garðarsdóttir - Háskóli Íslands (University of Iceland), Iceland EMAIL
• Gerda Neyer - Stockholms Universitet, Sweden EMAIL
• Ida Viklund - Stockholms Universitet, Sweden EMAIL

Other articles by the same author/authors in Demographic Research

Can a cash transfer to families change fertility behaviour?
Volume 38 - Article 33

Cohort fertility patterns in the Nordic countries
Volume 20 - Article 14

Unemployment and fertility: The relationship between individual and aggregated unemployment and fertility during 1994–2014 in Norway
Volume 46 - Article 35

Disentangling the complexity of family policies: SPIN data with an application to Lithuania and Sweden, 1995–2015
Volume 43 - Article 42

Introduction to the Special Collection on Finding Work-Life Balance: History, Determinants, and Consequences of New Bread-Winning Models in the Industrialized World
Volume 37 - Article 26

The Contextual Database of the Generations and Gender Programme: Concept, content, and research examples
Volume 35 - Article 9

The link between parenthood and partnership in contemporary Norway - Findings from focus group research
Volume 32 - Article 9

Towards a new understanding of cohabitation: Insights from focus group research across Europe and Australia
Volume 31 - Article 34

Should governments in Europe be more aggressive in pushing for gender equality to raise fertility? The second "NO"
Volume 24 - Article 10

Generations and Gender Survey (GGS): Towards a better understanding of relationships and processes in the life course
Volume 17 - Article 14

Educational attainment and ultimate fertility among Swedish women born in 1955-59
Volume 14 - Article 16

Education and childlessness: The relationship between educational field, educational level, and childlessness among Swedish women born in 1955-59
Volume 14 - Article 15

Social differentials in speed-premium effects in childbearing in Sweden
Volume 14 - Article 4

A summary of Special Collection 3: Contemporary Research on European Fertility: Perspectives and Developments
Volume 10 - Article 13

New fertility trends in Norway
Volume 2 - Article 3

Contemporary Research on European Fertility: Introduction
Special Collection 3 - Article 1

Most recent similar articles in Demographic Research

Educational trends in cohort fertility by birth order: A comparison of England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland
Volume 51 - Article 36    | Keywords: birth order, cohort analysis, cross-national study, England, family size, fertility, Northern Ireland, parity, Scotland, Wales

Higher incomes are increasingly associated with higher fertility: Evidence from the Netherlands, 2008–2022
Volume 51 - Article 26    | Keywords: fertility, income, inequalities, Netherlands, parenthood

The short- and long-term determinants of fertility in Uruguay
Volume 51 - Article 10    | Keywords: fertility, panel data, stages of female reproductive life, time series, Uruguay

Impact of family policies and economic situation on low fertility in Tehran, Iran: A multi-agent-based modeling
Volume 51 - Article 5    | Keywords: economic conditions, family policy, Iran, low fertility, multi-agent-based modeling

The big decline: Lowest-low fertility in Uruguay (2016–2021)
Volume 50 - Article 16    | Keywords: adolescent fertility, birth order, fertility, Latin America, ultra-low fertility, Uruguay