Volume 51 - Article 28 | Pages 855–910
Cash transfers and fertility: Evidence from Poland’s Family 500+ Policy
By Anna Bokun
References
Aassve, A. and Lappegård, T. (2010). Cash-benefit policy and childbearing decisions in Norway. Marriage and Family Review 46(3): 149–169.
Aassve, A. and Lappegård, T. (2009). Childcare cash benefits and fertility timing in Norway. European Journal of Population 25(1): 67–88.
Ala-Karvia, U., Hozer-Koćmiel, M., Misiak-Kwit, S., and Staszko, B. (2019). Is Poland becoming Nordic? Changing trends in household structures in Poland and Finland with the emphasis on people living alone. Statistics in Transition New Series 19(4): 725–742.
Alderotti, G., Vignoli, D., Baccini, M., and Matysiak, A. (2021). Employment instability and fertility in Europe: A meta-analysis. Demography 58(3): 871–900.
Andersen, S.N., Drange, N., and Lappegård, T. (2018). Can a cash transfer to families change fertility behaviour? Demographic Research 38(33): 897–928.
Bargu, A. and Morgandi, M. (2018). Can mothers afford to work in Poland: Labor supply incentives of social benefits and childcare costs. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Bartosik, K. (2023). The Family 500+ benefit and changes in female employment in Poland. Central European Economic Journal 10(57): 23–34.
Bauer, G. and Kneip, T. (2014). Dyadic fertility decisions in a life course perspective. Advances in Life Course Research 21: 87–100.
BBC (2019). Hungary mums-of-four to pay no income tax [electronic resource [electronic resource]. London: BBC News.
BBC (2020). Russia’s Putin seeks to stimulate birth rate [electronic resource [electronic resource]. London: BBC News.
Beaujouan, E. (2023). Delayed fertility as a driver of fertility decline? In: Schoen, R. (ed.). The demography of transforming families, the springer series on demographic methods and population analysis. Cham: Springer International Publishing: 41–63.
Beaujouan, E. (2020). Latest-late fertility? Decline and resurgence of late parenthood across the low-fertility countries. Population and Development Review 46(2): 219–247.
Becker, G. (1960). An economic analysis of fertility. Demographic and economic change in developed countries. New York: Columbia University Press.
Becker, G. and Lewis, H.G. (1973). On the interaction between the quantity and quality of children. Journal of Political Economy 81(2): 279–288.
Bein, C., Mynarska, M., and Gauthier, A.H. (2021). Do costs and benefits of children matter for religious people? Perceived consequences of parenthood and fertility intentions in Poland. Journal of Biosocial Science 53(3): 419–435.
Bergsvik, J., Fauske, A., and Hart, R.K. (2021). Can policies stall the fertility fall? A systematic review of the (quasi‐) experimental literature. Population and Development Review 47(4): 913–64.
Bhattacharjee, N.V. and G.B.D. Fertility and Forecasting Collaborators (2024). Global fertility in 204 countries and territories, 1950–2021, with forecasts to 2100: A comprehensive demographic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021. The Lancet 403(10440): 2057–2099.
Billari, F.C. (2008). Lowest-low fertility in Europe: Exploring the causes and finding some surprises. The Japanese Journal of Population 6(1): 2–18.
Billingsley, S. (2010). The post-communist fertility puzzle. Population Research and Policy Review 29(2): 193–231.
Billingsley, S. and Ferrarini, T. (2011). Family policies and fertility intentions across new and old welfare democracies. Stockholm: Stockholm University, SPaDE working paper 2011: 10.
Bird, C.E. and P.P, Rieker (2008). Constrained choice: Why are some women and men able to create and maintain healthy lifestyles, while others are not? Santa Monica: RAND Corporation.
Błaszczyk, A. and Sawicka, J. (2018). Wpływ programu 500 plus na ewolucję demograficzną polskiego społeczeństwa. Gospodarka w Praktyce i Teorii 53(4): 7–25.
Bongaarts, J. (2004). Population aging and the rising cost of public pensions. Population and Development Review 30(1).
Bongaarts, J. and Sobotka, T. (2012). A demographic explanation for the recent rise in European fertility. Population and Development Review 38(1): 83–120.
Borg, M.O. (1989). The income–fertility relationship: Effect of the net price of a child. Demography 26(2): 301–310.
Botev, N. (2015). Could pronatalist policies discourage childbearing? Population and Development Review 41(2): 301–314.
Brainerd, E. (2014). Can government policies reverse undesirable declines in fertility? Bonn: IZA World of Labor.
Brzeziński, M. and Najsztub, M. (2017). The impact of ‘Family 500+’ programme on household incomes, poverty and inequality. Polityka Społeczna 44(1): 16–25.
Brzozowska, Z. and Mynarska, M. (2018). Short-term fertility intentions and their realization in Poland. Studia Demograficzne 2(174): 25–36.
Burkimsher, M. (2015). Europe-wide fertility trends since the 1990s: turning the corner from declining first birth rates. Demographic Research 32(21): 621–656.
Careers in Poland (2020). Family 500+ programme – are foreigners eligible? Warsaw: Careers in Poland.
Carneiro, P., Kraftman, L., Giacomo, M., Moore, L., Rasul, I., and Scott, M. (2020). The impacts of a multifaceted pre-natal intervention on human capital accumulation in early life. Bonn: IZA, Institute of Labor Economics Working Paper Series.
Carneiro, P., Kraftman, L., Rasul, I., and Scott, M. (2022). Accelerating birth timing to access cash transfers? Evidence from households in extreme poverty. Cambridge: The Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL).
Carruthers, B.G. (2010). The meanings of money: a sociological perspective. Theoretical Inquiries in Law 11(1): 51–74.
CBOS Public Opinion Research Center (2021). Family 500 plus program after 5 years of operation [electronic resource. Warsaw: CBOS Public Opinion Research Center.
Chatla, S. and Shmueli, G. (2016). Linear probability models (lpm) and big data: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Rochester: Social Science Research Network, Indian School of Business Research Paper Series; WP: 2353841.
Chirkova, S. (2013). Do pro-natalist policies reverse depopulation in Russia? Alexandria: The Society of Labor Economists, SOLE Working Paper Series.
Cohen, A., Dehejia, R., and Romanov, D. (2007). Do financial incentives affect fertility? Cambridge: National Bureau of Economic Research, NBER Working Paper Series w13700.
Cohen, A., Dehejia, R., and Romanov, D. (2013). Financial incentives and fertility. Review of Economics and Statistics 95(1): 1–20.
Comolli, C.L. (2017). The fertility response to the great recession in Europe and the United States: Structural economic conditions and perceived economic uncertainty. Demographic Research 36(51): 1549–1600.
Cook, L.J., Iarskaia-Smirnova, E.R., and Kozlov, V.A. (2023). Trying to reverse demographic decline: Pro-natalist and family policies in Russia, Poland and Hungary. Social Policy and Society 22(2): 355–375.
Cowan, S.K. and Douds, K.W. (2022). Examining the effects of a universal cash transfer on fertility. Social Forces 101(2): 1003–1030.
Cygan-Rehm, K. (2014). Immigrant fertility in Germany: The role of culture. Journal of Contextual Economics – Schmollers Jahrbuch 134(3): 305–340.
Dake, F., Natali, L., Angeles, G., Hoop, J., Handa, S., and Peterman, A. (2018). Cash transfers, early marriage, and fertility in Malawi and Zambia. Studies in Family Planning 49(4): 295–317.
DeRose, L.F. (2021). Gender equity, religion, and fertility in Europe and North America. Population and Development Review 47(1): 41–55.
Dildar, Y. (2022). The effect of pronatalist rhetoric on women’s fertility preferences in Turkey. Population and Development Review 48(2): 579–612.
Docquier, F. (2004). Income distribution, non-convexities and the fertility–income relationship. Economica 71(282): 261–273.
Doepke, M., Hannusch, A., Kindermann, F., and Tertilt, M. (2023). The economics of fertility: A new era. In: Lundberg, S. and Voena, A. (eds.). Handbook of the economics of the family. Amsterdam: Elsevier: 151–254.
Duszczyk, M. and Kaczmarczyk, P. (2022). The war in Ukraine and migration to Poland: Outlook and challenges. Intereconomics 57(3): 164–170.
Easterlin, R.A. (1987). Birth and fortune: The impact of numbers on personal welfare. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Esping-Andersen, G. and Billari, F.C. (2015). Re-theorizing family demographics. Population and Development Review 41(1): 1–31.
European Commission (2019). Lithuania introduces a universal child benefit to tackle child poverty [electronic resource. Brussels: European Commission , ESPN Flash Report 2019/06.
European Commission (2018). Measures to fight demographic decline in Hungary [electronic resource. Brussels: European Commission, ESPN Flash Report 2018/19.
Eurostat (2018). Estimated average age of young people leaving the parental household by sex. Brussels: European Commission, Eurostat Data Browser.
Eurostat (2021). Legally induced abortions by mothers’ age. Brussels: European Commission.
Eurostat (2024). Live births by mother’s age and birth order. Brussels: European Commission, Eurostat Data Browser.
Eurostat (2021). Live births from mothers aged 40 and over. Brussels: European Commission.
Eurostat (2021). Monthly minimum wages – bi-annual data. Brussels: European Commission, Eurostat Data Browser.
Eurostat (2018). Share of children (aged less than 18) living with their parents by type of household. Brussels: European Commission, Eurostat Data Browser.
Eurostat (2021). Which EU countries had the highest GDP in 2020? Brussels: European Commission.
Fanelli, E. and Profeta, P. (2021). Fathers’ involvement in the family, fertility, and maternal employment: Evidence from Central and Eastern Europe. Demography 58(5): 1931–1954.
Feyrer, J., Sacerdote, B., and Stern, A.D. (2008). Will the stork return to Europe and Japan? Understanding fertility within developed nations. Journal of Economic Perspectives 22(3): 3–22.
Gábos, A., Gál, R.I., and Kézdi, G. (2009). The effects of child-related benefits and pensions on fertility by birth order: A test on Hungarian data. Population Studies 63(3): 215–231.
Gathmann, C. and Sass, B. (2018). Taxing childcare: Effects on childcare choices, family labor supply, and children. Journal of Labor Economics 36(3): 665–709.
Gauthier, A.H. (2007). The impact of family policies on fertility in industrialized countries: A review of the literature. Population Research and Policy Review 26(3): 323–346.
Gietel-Basten, S. and Scherbov, S. (2019). Is half the world’s population really below ‘replacement-rate’? PLOS ONE 14(12): e0224985.
Glass, J., Simon, R.W., and Andersson, M.A. (2016). Parenthood and happiness: Effects of work-family reconciliation policies in 22 OECD countries. American Journal of Sociology 122(3): 886–929.
Goldin, C.D. (2021). Career and family: Women’s century-long journey toward equity. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Goldscheider, F., Bernhardt, E., and Lappegård, T. (2015). The gender revolution: A framework for understanding changing family and demographic behavior. Population and Development Review 41(2): 207–239.
Golinowska, S. and Sowa-Kofta, A. (2017). Combating poverty through family cash benefits. On the first results of the programme ‘Family 500+’ in Poland. Polityka Społeczna 44(1): 7–13.
González, L. and Trommlerová, S.K. (2021). Cash transfers and fertility: How the introduction and cancellation of a child benefit affected births and abortions. Journal of Human Resources 58(3): 783–818.
Goraus-Tanska, K. and Inchauste, G. (2016). The distributional impact of taxes and transfers in Poland.
Gromada, A. (2023). Poland has changed beyond recognition – and so has its place in Europe’s pecking order. London: The Guardian.
Gromadzki, J. (2023). Labor supply effects of a universal cash transfer. Rochester: Social Science Research Network, IZA Discussion Paper 16186.
Gromadzki, J. (2024). Universal child benefits and child poverty: accounting for fertility and labor supply adjustments. Paper presented at the Interdisciplinary Centre for Labour Market and Family Dynamics (LabFam) Seminar, Poland, 2024.
Gromadzki, J., Sałach, K., and Brzeziński, M. (2024). When populists deliver on their promises: The electoral effects of a large cash transfer programme in Poland. Economica 91(361): 320–345.
Grzebalska, W. and Pető, A. (2018). The gendered modus operandi of the illiberal transformation in Hungary and Poland. Women’s Studies International Forum 68: 164–172.
Haan, P. and Myck, M. (2012). Multi-family households in a labour supply model: A calibration method with application to Poland. Applied Economics 44(22): 2907–2919.
Haan, P. and Wrohlich, K. (2011). Can child care policy encourage employment and fertility? Evidence from a structural model. Labour Economics 18(4): 498–512.
Hagemejer, K. (2018). Is the “500+” child benefit programme over generous? Polish social protection expenditure on benefits and services for families with children compared with other member countries of the EU and OECD. Polityka Społeczna 2017(1): 1–7.
Han, S.W. and Brinton, M.C. (2022). Theories of postindustrial fertility decline: An empirical examination. Population and Development Review 48(2): 303–330.
Hart, R., Bergsvik, J., Fauske, A., and Kim, W. (2024). Causal analysis of policy effects on fertility. In: Zimmermann, K.F. (ed.). Handbook of labor, human resources and population economics. Cham: Springer International Publishing: 1–25.
Hausman, C. and Rapson, D.S. (2018). Regression discontinuity in time: Considerations for empirical applications. Annual Review of Resource Economics 10(1): 533–552.
Hazan, M. and Zoabi, H. (2015). Do highly educated women choose smaller families? The Economic Journal 125(587): 1191–1226.
Hoem, J.M. (2008). The impact of public policies on European fertility. Demographic Research 19(10): 249–260.
Holzer-Żelażewska, D. and Tymicki, K. (2009). Cohort and period fertility of Polish women, 1945–2008. Studia Demograficzne 1(155): 48–69.
Hoorens, S., Clift, J., Staetsky, L., Janta, B., Diepeveen, S., Jones, M.M., and Grant, J. (2011). Low fertility in Europe: Is there still reason to worry? Santa Monica: RAND Corporation.
Huinink, J. and Kohli, M. (2014). A life-course approach to fertility. Demographic Research 30(45): 1293–1326.
Hussein, J., Cottingham, J., Nowicka, W., and Kismodi, E. (2018). Abortion in Poland: Politics, progression and regression. Reproductive Health Matters 26(52): 11–14.
Impicciatore, R. and Tomatis, F. (2020). The nexus between education and fertility in six European countries. Genus 76(1): 35.
Isański, J., Michalski, M., Szwarc, K., and Seredyńska-Abou Eid, R. (2021). Fertility potential and child benefits questioned: Polish migration in the UK and changes of family policies in Poland. Migration Letters 18(4): 381–399.
Jarska, N. and Ignaciuk, A. (2022). Marriage, gender and demographic change: managing fertility in state-socialist Poland. Slavic Review 81(1): 142–162.
Jędrzejczak, A. and Pekasiewicz, D. (2020). Changes in income distribution for different family types in Poland. International Advances in Economic Research 26(2): 135–146.
Jones, L.E., Schoonbroodt, A., and Tertilt, M. (2008). Fertility theories: Can they explain the negative fertility-income relationship? Cambridge: National Bureau of Economic Research, NBER Working Paper Series w14266.
Kalwij, A. (2010). The impact of family policy expenditure on fertility in Western Europe. Demography 47(2): 503–519.
Kearney, M.S., Levine, P.B., and Pardue, L. (2022). The puzzle of falling U.S. birth rates since the Great Recession. Journal of Economic Perspectives 36(1): 151–176.
Kim, E.H. (2017). Division of domestic labour and lowest-low fertility in South Korea. Demographic Research 37(24): 743–768.
Kim, W. (2023). Baby bonus, fertility, and missing women. Rochester: Social Science Research Network , SSRN Working Paper Series.
Klesment, M., Puur, A., Rahnu, L., and Sakkeus, L. (2014). Varying association between education and second births in Europe: Comparative analysis based on the EU-SILC data. Demographic Research 31(27): 813–860.
Klich-Kluczewska, B. (2012). Making up for the losses of war: Reproduction politics in post-war Poland. Osnabrück: fibre Verlag.
Klimek, Ł. (2017). Migration and fertility: Polish migrant families in Ireland and non-migrant families in Poland: A comparison of fertility plans and behaviour. Central and Eastern European Migration Review 6(2): 5–30.
Kohler, H.P., Billari, F.C., and Ortega, J.A. (2002). The emergence of lowest-low fertility in Europe during the 1990s. Population and Development Review 28(4): 641–680.
Kolasa, A. (2021). Macroeconomic consequences of the demographic and educational changes in Poland after 1990. Macroeconomic Dynamics 25(8): 1993–2036.
Korpi, W. (2000). Faces of inequality: Gender, class, and patterns of inequalities in different types of welfare states. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State and Society 7(2): 127–191.
Kotowska, I.E., Jóźwiak, J., Matysiak, A., and Baranowska-Rataj, A. (2008). Poland: Fertility decline as a response to profound societal and labour market changes? Demographic Research S7(22): 795–854.
Kreyenfeld, M. and Konietzka, D. (2017). Childlessness in Europe: Contexts, causes, and consequences. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
La Ferrara, E., Chong, A., and Duryea, S. (2012). Soap operas and fertility: Evidence from Brazil. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 4(4): 1–31.
Lazzari, E., Reimondos, A., and Gray, E. (2023). Did the COVID‐19 pandemic affect fertility desires in Australia? Understanding why people changed their attitudes towards having a first or additional child. Population and Development Review 50(S1): 243–276.
Lee, R., Mason, A., and Network, N.T.A. (2014). Is low fertility really a problem? Population aging, dependency, and consumption. Science 346(6206): 229–234.
Lesthaeghe, R. (1995). The second demographic transition in western countries: An interpretation. In: Mason, K.O. and Jensen, A.M. (eds.). Gender and family change in industrialized countries. Oxford: Clarendon: 17–62.
Luci-Greulich, A. and Thévenon, O. (2013). The impact of family policies on fertility trends in developed countries. European Journal of Population 29(4): 387–416.
Lutz, W. and Gailey, N. (2020). Depopulation as a policy challenge in the context of global demographic trends. Istanbul: UNFPA EECA, Human Development Series.
Lutz, W., Skirbekk, V., and Testa, M.R. (2006). The low-fertility trap hypothesis: Forces that may lead to further postponement and fewer births in Europe. Vienna Yearbook of Population Research 4: 167–192.
Macura, M., Kadri, A., Mochizaki-Sternberg, Y., and Garcia, J.L. (2000). Fertility decline in the transition economies, 1989–1998: Economic and social factors revisited. Economic Survey of Europe 1: 189–205.
Magda, I. (2020). Increasing female labour force participation in Poland. Warsaw: Institute for Structural Research, IBS Policy Paper 01/2020.
Magda, I., Kiełczewska, A., and Brandt, N. (2018). The ‘Family 500+’ child allowance and female labour supply in Poland. Warsaw: Institute for Structural Research, IBS Working Paper 01/2018.
Makarski, K., Tyrowicz, J., and Malec, M. (2019). Fiscal and welfare effects of raised fertility in Poland: Overlapping generations model estimates. Population and Development Review 45(4): 795–818.
Malkova, O. (2018). Can maternity benefits have long-term effects on childbearing? Evidence from Soviet Russia. The Review of Economics and Statistics 100(4): 691–703.
Marczak, J., Sigle, W., and Coast, E. (2018). When the grass is greener: Fertility decisions in a cross-national context. Population Studies 72(2): 201–216.
Margolis, R. and Myrskylä, M. (2015). Parental well-being surrounding first birth as a determinant of further parity progression. Demography 52(4): 1147–1166.
Matysiak, A. (2009). Employment first, then childbearing: Women’s strategy in post-socialist Poland. Population Studies 63(3): 253–276.
Matysiak, A., Sobotka, T., and Vignoli, D. (2021). The great recession and fertility in Europe: A sub-national analysis. European Journal of Population 37(1): 29–64.
Matysiak, A. and Vignoli, D. (2013). Diverse effects of women’s employment on fertility: Insights from Italy and Poland. European Journal of Population 29(3): 273–302.
McDonald, P. (2000). Gender equity in theories of fertility transition. Population and Development Review 26(3): 427–439.
Meardi, G. and Guardiancich, I. (2022). Back to the familialist future: The rise of social policy for ruling populist radical right parties in Italy and Poland. West European Politics 45(1): 129–153.
Michoń, P. (2021). Deservingness for ‘Family 500 +’ benefit in Poland: Qualitative study of internet debates. Social Indicators Research 157: 203–223.
Milewska, A. and Błażejczyk, D. (2022). Poland’s ‘Family 500+’ program as an opportunity to solve the problems of family and demographic policy. Zeszyty Naukowe SGGW, Polityki Europejskie, Finanse i Marketing 27(76): 58–67.
Milligan, K. (2005). Subsidizing the stork: New evidence on tax incentives and fertility. The Review of Economics and Statistics 87(3): 539–555.
Milovanska-Farrington, S. (2022). The effect of child benefits on financial difficulties and spending habits: Evidence from Poland’s Family 500+ program. International Economics and Economic Policy 19: 719–739.
Mishtal, J. (2012). Irrational non-reproduction? the ‘dying nation’ and the postsocialist logics of declining motherhood in Poland. Anthropology and Medicine 19(2): 153–169.
Mishtal, J.Z. (2009). Understanding low fertility in Poland: Demographic consequences of gendered discrimination in employment and post-socialist neoliberal restructuring. Demographic Research 21(20): 599–626.
Morawiecki, M. (2018). Meet the polish tiger.
Mortimer, J.T. and Shanahan, M. (2003). Handbook of the life course. New York: Springer.
Murkowski, R. (2021). Selected socio-economic factors co-occurring with high fertility rate in the OECD countries. Operations Research and Decisions 31(3): 89–108.
Myck, M. and Trziński, K. (2019). From partial to full universality: The Family 500+ programme in Poland and its labour supply implications. ifo DICE Report 17(03): 36–44.
Myrskylä, M., Goldstein, J.R., and Cheng, Y.A. (2013). New cohort fertility forecasts for the developed world: Rises, falls, and reversals. Population and Development Review 39(1): 31–56.
Myrskylä, M., Kohler, H.P., and Billari, F.C. (2009). Advances in development reverse fertility declines. Nature 460(7256): 741–743.
Ní Bhrolcháin, M. and Beaujouan, É (2012). Fertility postponement is largely due to rising educational enrollment. Population Studies 66(3): 311–327.
Nitsche, N., Matysiak, A., Bavel, J.V., and Vignoli, D. (2018). Partners’ educational pairings and fertility across Europe. Demography 55(4): 1195–1232.
OECD (2020). Family benefits public spending. Paris: The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Data Indicators.
OECD (2019). PF1.1: Public spending on family benefits. Paris: The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Family Database.
OECD (2022). PF1.3 Family cash benefits. Paris: The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Family Database.
OECD (2019). Public policies for families and children (PF). Paris: The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Family Database.
OECD (2024). SF2.1 Fertility rates. Paris: The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Data Indicators.
OECD (2022). Trust in government. Paris: The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Data Indicators.
Okólski, M. (2021). The migration transition in Poland. Central and Eastern European Migration Review 10(2): 151–169.
Okun, B.S. and Stecklov, G. (2021). The impact of grandparental death on the fertility of adult children. Demography 58(3): 847–870.
Oshio, T. (2019). Is a positive association between female employment and fertility still spurious in developed countries? Demographic Research 41(45): 1277–1288.
Osiewalska, B. and Matysiak, A. (2024). Two sides of a coin: The relationship between work autonomy and childbearing. Warsaw: Interdisciplinary Centre for Labour Market and Family Dynamics (LabFam) at the University of Warsaw, WP 2/2024 [438].
Paradowski, P.R., Wolszczak-Derlacz, J., and Sierminska, E. (2020). Inequality, poverty and child benefits: Evidence from a natural experiment. Esch-sur-Alzette/Belval: LIS Cross-National Data Center in Luxembourg, LIS Working papers 799.
Paradysz, J. (2022). Metody badania efektywności programu Rodzina 500+. In: Michalski, M.A. (ed.). Rodzina – wyzwania na XXI wiek. Warsaw: Polish Statistical Office.
Pew Research Center (2018). U.S. women are postponing motherhood, but not as much as those in most other developed nations. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.
Philipov, D. (2002). Fertility in times of discontinuous societal change: the case of Central and Eastern Europe. Rostock: Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research, MPIDR Working Paper; WP 2002-024.
Płomien, A. (2019). Gender inequality by design: does successful implementation of childcare policy deliver gender-just outcomes? Policy and Society 38(4): 643–662.
Polish Ministry of Family and Social Policy (2021). Family 500+ [electronic resource. Warsaw: Polish Ministry of Family and Social Policy.
Polish Ministry of Family and Social Policy (2021). Najważniejsze informacje o rządowym programie „Rodzina 500+". Warsaw: Polish Ministry of Family and Social Policy.
Polish Statistical Office (2023). 2023 – 05 – Ludność według płci, wieku, województw i Powiatów. Warsaw: Polish Statistical Office, Demographic Database.
Polish Statistical Office (2022). Demographic situation in Poland up to 2022. Warsaw: Polish Statistical Office.
Polish Statistical Office (2023). Demography – total fertility rate. Warsaw: Polish Statistical Office, Knowledge Databases.
Polish Statistical Office (2019). Household budget survey in 2018 [electronic resource. Warsaw: Polish Statistical Office.
Polish Statistical Office (2023). Infant death. Warsaw: Polish Statistical Office, Knowledge Databases.
Polish Statistical Office (2022). Live births. Warsaw: Polish Statistical Office, Knowledge Databases.
Polish Statistical Office (2022). Median age of first-time mothers. Warsaw: Polish Statistical Office, Knowledge Databases.
Polish Statistical Office (2021). Percentage of illegitimate live births. Warsaw: Polish Statistical Office, Knowledge Databases.
Polish Statistical Office (2021). Stan i struktura demograficzno-społeczna i ekonomiczna ludności Polski w świetle wyników NSP 2021. Warsaw: Polish Statistical Office.
Polish Statistical Office (2023). Structure of population age by sex [electronic resource. Warsaw: Polish Statistical Office, Knowledge Databases.
Posit team (2024). RStudio: Integrated development environment for R. Boston, MA: Posit Software.
Premik, F. (2022). Evaluating Poland’s Family 500+ child support programme. Gospodarka Narodowa. The Polish Journal of Economics 310(2): 1–19.
Pustulka, P., Sarnowska, J., and Buler, M. (2021). Resources and pace of leaving home among young adults in Poland. Journal of Youth Studies 25(7): 1–17.
Rae, G. (2020). In the Polish mirror. New Left Review 124: 89–104.
Riphahn, R.T. and Wiynck, F. (2017). Fertility effects of child benefits. Journal of Population Economics 30(4): 1135–1184.
Rosenzweig, M.R. and Schultz, T.P. (1985). The supply and demand of births and their life-cycle consequences. American Economic Review 75: 992–1015.
Ruzik-Sierdzińska, A. (2018). Krótkookresowe skutki programu Rodzina 500+. Studia z Polityki Publicznej 5(1(17)): 63–75.
Rybińska, A. (2014). Motherhood after the age of 35 in Poland. Studia Demograficzne 1(165): 7–28.
Salanie, B. and Laroque, G. (2008). Does fertility respond to financial incentives? Rochester: Social Science Research Network, CESifo Working Paper Series 2339.
Scheiring, G., Bryant, H., Irdam, D., Azarova, A., Fodor, E., Stuckler, D., Esping-Andersen, G., and King, L. (2020). Privatization and the postsocialist fertility decline. Rochester: Social Science Research Network.
Sikorska, M. (2021). Is it possible to increase the fertility rate in Poland? Warsaw: Institute for Structural Research (IBS Policy Paper).
Skirbekk, V. (2022). Decline and prosper! Changing global birth rates and the advantages of fewer children. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
Słonimczyk, F. and Yurko, A. (2014). Assessing the impact of the maternity capital policy in Russia. Labour Economics 30: 265–281.
Śmigielska, D. (2020). Realizacja i skutki programu „Rodzina 500+” w Polsce. Myśl Ekonomiczna i Polityczna 2020(2): 56–77.
Sobotka, T. (2011). Fertility in Central and Eastern Europe after 1989: Collapse and gradual recovery. Historical Social Research/Historische Sozialforschung 36(2(136)): 246–296.
Sobotka, T. (2002). Ten years of rapid fertility changes in the European post-communist countries. Groningen: Population Research Centre, Working Paper Series 02–1, July 2002.
Sobotka, T. and Beaujouan, E. (2018). Late motherhood in low-fertility countries: Reproductive intentions, trends and consequences. In: Stoop, D. (ed.). Preventing age related fertility loss. Cham: Springer International Publishing: 11–29.
Sobotka, T. and Fürnkranz-Prskawetz, A. (2020). Demographic change in Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe: Trends, determinants and challenges. In: Holzmann, R., Ritzberger-Grünwald, D., and Schuberth, H. (eds.). 30 years of transition in Europe. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar: 196–222.
Sobotka, T., Lutz, W., and Philipov, D. (2005). Missing births’: Decomposing the declining number of births in Europe into tempo, quantum, and age structure effects. Vienna: VID, European Demographic Research Papers WP 2.
Sobotka, T., Matysiak, A., and Brzozowska, Z. (2020). Policy responses to low fertility. New York: United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), Working Paper 1.
Spéder, Z., Murinkó, L., and Oláh, L.S. (2020). Cash support vs. tax incentives: The differential impact of policy interventions on third births in contemporary Hungary. Population Studies 74(1): 39–54.
Stone, L. (2020). Pro-natal policies work, but they come with a hefty price tag. Charlottesville: Institute for Family Studies.
Striessnig, E. and Lutz, W. (2013). Can below-replacement fertility be desirable? Empirica 40(3): 409–425.
Suwada, K. (2019). Agency in parents’ fertility behaviours – Gaps in the Polish family policy system. Social Policy and Administration 53(7): 1108–1120.
Suwada, K. (2021). Genderizing consequences of family policies in Poland in 2010s: A sociological perspective. Society Register 5(4): 41–60.
Szarfenberg, R. (2017). Wpływ świadczenia wychowawczego (500+) na ubóstwo na podstawie mikrosymulacji. Polityka Społeczna (4): 1–6.
Szelewa, D. (2022). When family policy doesn’t work: Motives and welfare attitudes among childfree persons in Poland. Social Inclusion 10(3): 194–205.
Tatarczak, A. and Janik, G. (2023). Demographic challenges in Poland understanding low fertility. Econometrics 27(4): 1–14.
Testa, M.R., Cavalli, L., and Rosina, A. (2014). The effect of couple disagreement about child-timing intentions: A parity-specific approach. Population and Development Review 40(1): 31–53.
Thaler, R.H. (1990). Anomalies: Saving, fungibility, and mental accounts. Journal of Economic Perspectives 4(1): 193–205.
Thévenon, O. and Gauthier, A.H. (2011). Family policies in developed countries: A ‘fertility-booster’ with side-effects. Community, Work and Family 14(2): 197–216.
Thomas, J., Rowe, F., Williamson, P., and Lin, E.S. (2022). The effect of leave policies on increasing fertility: A systematic review. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 9(1): 1–16.
Tropf, F.C. and Mandemakers, J.J. (2017). Is the association between education and fertility postponement causal? The role of family background factors. Demography 54(1): 71–91.
Turkowska-Kucharska, W. (2018). Efekty rządowego programu „Rodzina 500 plus” dla rodzin i aktywności zawodowej kobiet. Rocznik Lubuski 44(1): 217–232.
UNICEF (2020). Universal child benefits. policy issues and options. London: Overseas Development Institute and New York: United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF).
Van Bavel, J. and Reher, D.S. (2013). The baby boom and its causes: What we know and what we need to know. Population and Development Review 39(2): 257–288.
Vanhuysse, P. and Perek-Białas, J. (2021). The political demography of missed opportunity: Populations and policies in a younger but faster-ageing East Central Europe, 1990–2040. In: Goerres, A. and Vanhuysse, P. (eds.). Global political demography: The politics of population change. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan: 373–399.
Vasireddy, S., Berrington, A., Kuang, B., and Kulu, H. (2022). Education and fertility in Europe in the last decade: A review of the literature. Southampton: Centre for Population Change (CPC), Working Paper 103.
Vignoli, D., Guetto, R., Bazzani, G., Pirani, E., and Minello, A. (2020). A reflection on economic uncertainty and fertility in Europe: the narrative framework. Genus 76(1): 28.
Voas, D. (2003). Conflicting preferences: A reason fertility tends to be too high or too low. Population and Development Review 29(4): 627–646.
Walford, N. and Kurek, S. (2016). Outworking of the second demographic transition: National trends and regional patterns of fertility change in Poland, and England and Wales, 2002–2012. Population, Space and Place 22(6): 508–525.
Walker, S. (2020). Baby machines’: Eastern Europe’s answer to depopulation.
Wilk, S. (2020). The role of family policy in solving demographic problems: Study of the Polish program Family 500+. European Journal of Sustainable Development 9(4): 84–84.
Wiśniewska, A., Musiał, M., and Świecka, B. (2017). The program “Family 500 plus” implications for household finance in Poland. CBU International Conference Proceedings 5: 490–494.
Wooldridge, J.M. (2010). Econometric analysis of cross section and panel data. Cambridge: MIT Press.
World Bank (2019). Family policies. Washington, DC: The World Bank, National Development Strategy Croatia 2030 Policy Note.
World Bank (2023). GDP per capita (current US$) – Poland. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
Wrocław.pl. (2018). Family 500+ program for foreigners. Wrocław: Wrocław.pl.
Yonzan, N., Timilsina, L., and Kelly, I.R. (2020). Economic incentives surrounding fertility: Evidence from Alaska’s permanent fund dividend. Economics and Human Biology 52: 101334.
Zelizer, V.A. (2017). The social meaning of money: pin money, paychecks, poor relief, and other currencies. Princeton: Princeton University Press.