Volume 50 - Article 34 | Pages 1005–1038  

Are highly educated partners really more gender egalitarian? A couple-level analysis of social class differentials in attitudes and behaviors

By Liat Raz-Yurovich, Barbara S. Okun

References

Aassve, A., Fuochi, G., and Mencarini, L. (2014). Desperate housework: Relative resources, time availability, economic dependency, and gender ideology across Europe. Journal of Family Issues 35(8): 1000–1022.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Aassve, A., Fuochi, G., Mencarini, L., and Mendola, D. (2015). What is your couple type? Gender ideology, housework-sharing, and babies. Demographic Research 32(30): 835–858.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Altintas, E. and Sullivan, O. (2017). Trends in fathers’ contribution to housework and childcare under different welfare policy regimes. Social Politics 24(1): 81–108.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Baizan, P. (2021). Welfare regime patterns in the social class-fertility relationship: Second births in Austria, France, Norway, and the United Kingdom. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility 73: 100611.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Barstad, A. (2014). Equality is bliss? Relationship quality and the gender division of household labor. Journal of Family Issues 35(7): 972–992.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Bauer, G. (2016). Gender roles, comparative advantages and the life course: The division of domestic labor in same-sex and different-sex couples. European Journal of Population 32: 99–128.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Bittman, M., England, P., Sayer, L., Folbre, N., and Matheson, G. (2003). When does gender trump money? Bargaining and time in household work. American Journal of Sociology 109(1): 186–214.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Bolzendahl, C.I. and Myers, D.J. (2004). Feminist attitudes and support for gender equality: Opinion change in women and men, 1974–1998. Social Forces 83(2): 759–789.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Brines, J. (1994). Economic dependency, gender, and the division of labor at home. American Journal of Sociology 100(3): 652–688.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Brinton, M.C. and Oh, E. (2019). Babies, work, or both? Highly educated women’s employment and fertility in East Asia. American Journal of Sociology 125(1): 105–140.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Bryant, A.N. (2003). Changes in attitudes toward women’s roles: Predicting gender-role traditionalism among college students. Sex Roles 48(3–4): 131–142.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Carlson, D.L. and Lynch, J.L. (2017). Purchases, penalties, and power: The relationship between earnings and housework. Journal of Marriage and Family 79(1): 199–224.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Cherlin, A.J. (2016). A happy ending to a half-century of family change? Population and Development Review 42(1): 121–129.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Chiappori, P.A. and Lewbel, A. (2015). Gary Becker’s a theory of the allocation of time. The Economic Journal 125(583): 410–442.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Coltrane, S. (2000). Research on household labor: Modeling and measuring the social embeddedness of routine family work. Journal of Marriage and Family 62(4): 1208–1233.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Corrigall, E.A. and Konrad, A.M. (2007). Gender role attitudes and careers: A longitudinal study. Sex Roles 56(11–12): 847–855.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Cotter, D., Hermsen, J.M., and Vanneman, R. (2011). The end of the gender revolution? Gender role attitudes from 1977 to 2008. American Journal of Sociology 117(1): 259–289.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Craig, L., Perales, F., Vidal, S., and Baxter, J. (2016). Domestic outsourcing, housework time, and subjective time pressure: New insights from longitudinal data. Journal of Marriage and Family 78(5): 1224–1236.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Cunningham, M., Beutel, A.M., Barber, J.S., and Thornton, A. (2005). Reciprocal relationships between attitudes about gender and social contexts during young adulthood. Social Science Research 34: 862–892.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Davis, S.N. and Greenstein, T.N. (2009). Gender ideology: Components, predictors, and consequences. Annual Review of Sociology 35: 87–105.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Davis, S.N., Greenstein, T.N., and Gerteisen Marks, J.P. (2007). Effects of union type on division of household labor: Do cohabiting men really perform more housework? Journal of Family Issues 28(9): 1246–1272.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Deole, S.S. and Zeydanli, T. (2021). Does education predict gender role attitudes? Evidence from European datasets. Essen: Global Labor Organization (GLO, GLO Discussion Paper 793.

Weblink:
Download reference:

England, P. and Srivastava, A. (2013). Educational differences in US parents’ time spent in child care: The role of culture and cross-spouse influence. Social Science Research 42(4): 971–988.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Esping-Andersen, G. and Billari, F.C. (2015). Re‐theorizing family demographics. Population and Development Review 41(1): 1–31.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Evertsson, M., England, P., Mooi-Reci, I., Hermsen, J., De Bruijn, J., and Cotter, D. (2009). Is gender inequality greater at lower or higher educational levels? Common patterns in the Netherlands, Sweden, and the United States. Social Politics 16(2): 210–241.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Gershuny, J. and Sullivan, O. (2003). Time use, gender, and public policy regimes. Social Politics 10(2): 205–228.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Gershuny, J. and Sullivan, O. (2019). What we really do all day: Insights from the centre for time use research. London: Penguin UK.

Download reference:

Gerstel, N. and Clawson, D. (2014). Class advantage and the gender divide: Flexibility on the job and at home. American Journal of Sociology 120(2): 395–431.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Goldscheider, F., Bernhardt, E., and Lappegård, T. (2015). The gender revolution: A framework for understanding changing family and demographic behavior. Population and Development Review 41(2): 207–239.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Goldscheider, F. and Sassler, S. (2018). Family policy, socioeconomic inequality, and the gender revolution. In: Cahn, N.R., Carbone, J., DeRose, L.F., and Wilcox, W.B. (eds.). Unequal family lives: Causes and consequences in Europe and the Americas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 199–215.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Groves, J.M. and Lui, L. (2012). The ‘gift’ of help: Domestic helpers and the maintenance of hierarchy in the household division of labour. Sociology 46(1): 57–73.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Hartmann, H.I. (1981). The family as the locus of gender, class, and political struggle: The example of housework. Signs 6(3): 366–394.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Hochschild, A. and Machung, A. (2012). The second shift: Working families and the Revolution at Home. London: Penguin.

Download reference:

Hook, J.L. and Paek, E. (2020). A stalled revolution? Change in women’s labor force participation during child‐rearing years, Europe and the United States 1996–2016. Population and Development Review 46(4): 677–708.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Kalmijn, M. (1998). Intermarriage and homogamy: Causes, patterns, trends. Annual Review of Sociology 24(1): 395–421.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Kalmijn, M. (2013). The educational gradient in marriage: A comparison of 25 European countries. Demography 50(4): 1499–1520.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Kan, M.Y. (2008). Measuring housework participation: The gap between “stylised” questionnaire estimates and diary-based estimates. Social Indicators Research 86: 381–400.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Kan, M.Y., Zhou, M., Kolpashnikova, K., Hertog, E., Yoda, S., and Jun, J. (2022). Revisiting the gender revolution: Time on paid work, domestic work, and total work in East Asian and Western Societies 1985–2016. Gender and Society 36(3): 368–396.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Killewald, A. (2011). Opting out and buying out: Wives’ earnings and housework time. Journal of Marriage and Family 73(2): 459–471.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Killewald, A. and García-Manglano, J. (2016). Tethered lives: A couple-based perspective on the consequences of parenthood for time use, occupation, and wages. Social Science Research 60: 266–282.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Killewald, A. and Gough, M. (2010). Money isn’t everything: Wives’ earnings and housework time. Social Science Research 39(6): 987–1003.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Knight, C.R. and Brinton, M.C. (2017). One egalitarianism or several? Two decades of gender-role attitude change in Europe. American Journal of Sociology 122(5): 1485–1532.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Kuo, J.C.L. and Raley, R.K. (2016). Diverging patterns of union transition among cohabitors by race/ethnicity and education: Trends and marital intentions in the United States. Demography 53(4): 921–935.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Leopold, T. (2019). Diverging trends in satisfaction with housework: Declines in women, increases in men. Journal of Marriage and Family 81(1): 133–144.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Lesthaeghe, R. and Surkyn, J. (1988). Cultural dynamics and economic theories of fertility change. Population and Development Review 14(1): 1–45.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Lewis, J. (2001). The decline of the male breadwinner model: Implications for work and care. Social Politics 8(2): 152–169.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Lightman, N. and Kevins, A. (2021). Women’s work’: Welfare state spending and the gendered and classed dimensions of unpaid care. Gender and Society 35(5): 778–805.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Lozano, M. and Garcia‐Roman, J. (2022). The division of housework and re‐partnering in Europe: Is there a West/East divide? Family Relations 41: 1471–1500.

Download reference:

Lundberg, S. and Pollak, R.A. (1993). Separate spheres bargaining and the marriage market. Journal of Political Economy 101(6): 988–1010.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Mandel, H., Lazarus, A., and Shaby, M. (2020). Economic exchange or gender identities? Housework division and wives’ economic dependency in different contexts. European Sociological Review 36(6): 831–851.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Mandel, H. and Rotman, A. (2021). Revealing the concealed effect of top earnings on the gender gap in the economic value of higher education in the United States, 1980–2017. Demography 58(2): 551–570.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Matysiak, A., Styrc, M., and Vignoli, D. (2014). The educational gradient in marital disruption: A meta-analysis of European research findings. Population Studies 68(2): 197–215.

Weblink:
Download reference:

McDonald, P. (2000). Gender equity in theories of fertility transition. Population and Development Review 26(3): 427–439.

Weblink:
Download reference:

McLanahan, S. (2004). Diverging destinies: How children are faring under the second demographic transition. Demography 41(4): 607–627.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Miller, R.N. (2020). Educational assortative mating and time use in the home. Social Science Research 90: 102440.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Musick, K., Bea, M.D., and Gonalons-Pons, P. (2020). His and her earnings following parenthood in the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. American Sociological Review 85(4): 639–674.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Nitsche, N., Matysiak, A., Van Bavel, J., and Vignoli, D. (2018). Partners’ educational pairings and fertility across Europe. Demography 55(4): 1195–1232.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Okun, B.S. and Raz-Yurovich, L. (2019). Housework, gender role attitudes, and couples’ fertility intentions: Reconsidering men’s roles in gender theories of family change. Population and Development Review 45(1): 169–196.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Parsons, T. (1940). An analytical approach to the theory of social stratification. American Journal of Sociology 45(6): 841–862.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Pepin, J.R., Sayer, L.C., and Casper, L.M. (2018). Marital status and mothers’ time use: Childcare, housework, leisure, and sleep. Demography 55(1): 107–133.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Perelli‐Harris, B., Chao, S.Y., and Berrington, A. (2023). For better or worse: Economic strain, furlough, and relationship quality during the Covid‐19 lockdown. Journal of Marriage and Family 85(3): 782–806.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Perelli‐Harris, B., Sigle‐Rushton, W., Kreyenfeld, M., Lappegård, T., Keizer, R., and Berghammer, C. (2010). The educational gradient of childbearing within cohabitation in Europe. Population and Development Review 36(4): 775–801.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Pessin, L. (2018). Changing gender norms and marriage dynamics in the United States. Journal of Marriage and Family 80(1): 25–41.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Philipov, D. (2008). Family-related gender attitudes. In: Höhn, C., Avramov, D., and Kotowska, I.E. (eds.). People, population change and policies. Dordrecht: Springer: 153–174.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Raz-Yurovich, L. (2022). Leisure: Definitions, trends, and policy implications. Population Research and Policy Review 41(3): 981–1019.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Raz-Yurovich, L. (2016). Outsourcing of housework and the transition to a second birth in Germany. Population Research and Policy Review 35: 401–417.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Raz‐Yurovich, L. (2014). A transaction cost approach to outsourcing by households. Population and Development Review 40(2): 293–309.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Raz-Yurovich, L. and Marx, I. (2019). Outsourcing housework and highly skilled women’s labour force participation: An analysis of a policy intervention. European Sociological Review 35(2): 205–224.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Robinson, J.P. and Godbey, G. (2010). Time for life: The surprising ways Americans use their time. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.

Download reference:

Sayer, L.C., England, P., Allison, P.D., and Kangas, N. (2011). She left, he left: How employment and satisfaction affect women’s and men’s decisions to leave marriages. American Journal of Sociology 116(6): 1982–2018.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Scarborough, W.J., Pepin, J.R., Lambouths III, D.L., Kwon, R., and Monasterio, R. (2021). The intersection of racial and gender attitudes, 1977 through 2018. American Sociological Review 86(5): 823–855.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Schwartz, C.R. and Mare, R.D. (2005). Trends in educational assortative marriage from 1940 to 2003. Demography 42(4): 621–646.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Stone, P. (2007). Opting out? Why women really quit careers and head home. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Stratton, L.S. (2012). The role of preferences and opportunity costs in determining the time allocated to housework. American Economic Review 102(3): 606–611.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Sullivan, O. (2010). Changing differences by educational attainment in fathers’ domestic labour and child care. Sociology 44(4): 716–733.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Sullivan, O., Billari, F.C., and Altintas, E. (2014). Fathers’ changing contributions to child care and domestic work in very low-fertility countries: The effect of education. Journal of Family Issues 35(8): 1048–1065.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Testa, M.R. and Bolano, D. (2021). When partners’ disagreement prevents childbearing. Demographic Research 44(33): 811–838.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Treas, J. and De Ruijter, E. (2008). Earnings and expenditures on household services in married and cohabiting unions. Journal of Marriage and Family 70(3): 796–805.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Trimarchi, A. (2022). Gender-egalitarian attitudes and assortative mating by age and education. European Journal of Population 38: 429–456.

Weblink:
Download reference:

University of Essex, Institute for Social and Economic Research (2022). Understanding Society: Waves 1-12, 2009-2021 and Harmonised BHPS: Waves 1-18, 1991-2009. UK Data Service. SN: 6614.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Usdansky, M.L. (2011). The gender‐equality paradox: Class and incongruity between work‐family attitudes and behaviors. Journal of Family Theory and Review 3(3): 163–178.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Van Bavel, J., Schwartz, C.R., and Esteve, A. (2018). The reversal of the gender gap in education and its consequences for family life. Annual Review of Sociology 44: 341–360.

Weblink:
Download reference:

van der Lippe, T., Tijdens, K., and De Ruijter, E. (2004). Outsourcing of domestic tasks and time-saving effects. Journal of Family Issues 25(2): 216–240.

Weblink:
Download reference:

West, C. and Zimmerman, D.H. (1987). Doing gender. Gender and Society 1(2): 125–151.

Weblink:
Download reference:

Back to the article