Volume 36 - Article 56 | Pages 1721–1758
The mental health of youth and young adults during the transition to adulthood in Egypt
By Jenny Liu, Sepideh Modrek, Maia Sieverding
References
Afifi, M. (2006). Depression in adolescents: Gender differences in Oman and Egypt. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal 12(1–2): 61–71.
Alfeld-Liro, C. and Sigelman, C.K. (1998). Sex differences in self-concept and symptoms of depression during the transition to college. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 27(2): 219–244.
Amer, M. (2009). The Egyptian youth labor market school-to-work transition, 1988–2006. In: Assaad, R. (ed.). The Egyptian labor market revisited. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press: 117–156.
Amer, M. (2014). The school to work transition of Jordanian youth. In: Assaad, R. and Krafft, C. (eds.). The Egyptian labor market in an era of revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 70–89.
Amin, S. and Al-Bassusi, N. (2004). Education, wage work, and marriage: Perspectives of Egyptian working women. Journal of Marriage and Family 66(5): 1287–1299.
Assaad, R. (2007). Institutions, household decisions, and economic growth in Egypt. In: Nugent, J. and Pesaran, M.H. (eds.). Explaining growth in the Middle East. Amsterdam: Elsevier: 385–411.
Assaad, R. (1997). The effects of public sector hiring and compensation policies on the Egyptian labor market. The World Bank Economic Review 11(1): 85–118.
Assaad, R. (2008). Unemployment and youth insertion in the labor market in Egypt. In: Khayr al-Din, H. (ed.). The Egyptian economy: Current challenges and future prospects. Cairo: American University in Cairo: 133–178.
Assaad, R. and Barsoum, G. (2009). Rising expectations and diminishing opportunities for Egypt’s young. In: Dhillon, N. and Yousef, T. (eds.). Generation in waiting: The unfulfilled promise of young people in the Middle East. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution: 67–94.
Assaad, R., Binzel, C., and Gadallah, M. (2010). Transitions to employment and marriage among young men in Egypt. Middle East Development Journal 2(1): 39–88.
Assaad, R. and El Hamidi, F. (2009). Women in the Egyptian labor market: An analysis of developments, 1988–2006. In: Assaad, R. (ed.). The Egyptian labor market revisited. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press: 117–156.
Assaad, R. and Levison, D. (2017). Facing the global challenge of youth employment. In: Besada, H., Polonenko, L.M., and Agarwal, M. (eds.). Did the MDGs work? Meeting future challenges with past lessons. Bristol: Policy Press.
Assaad, R. and Roudi-Fahimi, F. (2007). Youth in the Middle East and North Africa: Demographic opportunity or challenge. Washington, D.C: Population Reference Bureau.
Barsoum, G. (2004). The employment crisis of female graduates in Egypt: An ethnographic account. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, Cairo Papers in Social Science.
Barsoum, G. (2015). Young people’s job aspirations in Egypt and the continued preference for a government job. In: Assaad, R. and Krafft, C. (eds.). The Egyptian labor market in an era of revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 108–126.
Beusenberg, M. and Orley, J.H. (1994). A user’s guide to the Self Reporting Questionnaire (SRQ). Geneva: World Health Organization Division of Mental Health.
Bloom, D.E., Cafiero, E., Jané-Llopis, E., Abrahams-Gessel, S., Bloom, L.R., Fathima, S., Feigl, A.B., Gaziano, T., Hamandi, A., Mowafi, M., Pandya, A., Prettner, K., Rosenberg, L., Seligman, B., Stein, A.Z., and and Weinstein, C. (2011). The global economic burden of noncommunicable diseases. Geneva: World Economic Forum.
Campante, F.R. and Chor, D. (2012). Why was the Arab world poised for revolution? Schooling, economic opportunities, and the Arab spring. The Journal of Economic Perspectives 26(2): 167–187.
Charara, R., Forouzanfar, M., Naghavi, M., Moradi-Lakeh, M., Afshin, A., Vos, T., Daoud, F., Wang, H., Bcheraoui, C.E., Khalil, I., Hamadeh, R.R., Khosravi, A., Rahimi-Movaghar, V., Khader, Y., Al-Hamad, N., Obermeyer, C.M., Rafay, A., Asghar, R., Rana, S.M., Shaheen, A., Abu-Rmeileh, N.M.E., Husseini, A., Abu-Raddad, L.J., Khoja, T., Rayess, Z.A.A., AlBuhairan, F.S., Hsairi, M., Alomari, M.A., Ali, R., Roshandel, G., Terkawi, A.S., Hamidi, S., Refaat, A.H., Westerman, R., Kiadaliri, A.A., Akanda, A.S., Ali, S.D., Bacha, U., Badawi, A., Bazargan-Hejazi, S., Faghmous, I.A.D., Fereshtehnejad, S.-M., Fischer, F., Jonas, J.B., Defo, B.K., Mehari, A., Omer, S.B., Pourmalek, F., Uthman, O.A., Mokdad, A.A., Maalouf, F.T., Abd-Allah, F., Akseer, N., Arya, D., Borschmann, R., Brazinova, A., Brugha, T.S., Catalá-López, F., Degenhardt, L., Ferrari, A., Haro, J.M., Horino, M., Hornberger, J.C., Huang, H., Kieling, C., Kim, D., Kim, Y., Knudsen, A.K., Mitchell, P.B., Patton, G., Sagar, R., Satpathy, M., Savuon, K., Seedat, S., Shiue, I., Skogen, J.C., Stein, D.J., Tabb, K.M., Whiteford, H.A., Yip, P., Yonemoto, N., Murray, C.J.L., and Mokdad, A.H. (2017). The burden of mental disorders in the Eastern Mediterranean region, 1990–2013. PLOS ONE 12(1): e0169575.
Dhillon, N. and Yousef, T. (2009). Generation in waiting: The unfulfilled promise of young people in the Middle East. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.
Dhillon, N., Yousef, T., and Dyer, P. (2009). Generation in waiting: An overview of school to work and family formation transitions. In: Dhillon, N. and Yousef, T. (eds.). Generation in waiting: The unfulfilled promise of young people in the Middle East. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press: 11–38.
Douki, S., Ben Zineb, S., Nacef, F., and Halbreich, U. (2007). Women’s mental health in the Muslim world: Cultural, religious, and social issues. Journal of Affective Disorders 102(1–3): 177–189.
El Kady, H.M. and Ibrahim, H.K. (2013). Depression among a group of elders in Alexandria, Egypt. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal 19(2): 167–174.
Elbadawy, A. (2015). Education in Egypt: Improvements in attainment, problems with quality and inequality. In: Assaad, R. and Krafft, C. (eds.). The Egyptian labor market in an era of revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 127–146.
Elbadawy, A. (2009). Three essays on education in Egypt. [PhD thesis]. Hamilton: McMaster University, Department of Economics.
Elder, G.H. (1998). The life course as developmental theory. Child Development 69(1): 1–12.
Elder, G.H. and Rockwell, R.C. (1979). The life-course and human development: An ecological perspective. International Journal of Behavioral Development 2(1): 1–21.
El-Islam, M.F. (2001). Social psychiatry and the impact of religion. In: Okasha, A. and Maj, M. (eds.). Images in psychiatry: An Arab perspective. Cairo: WPA Publications: 21–35.
Ferrari, A.J., Charlson, F.J., Norman, R.E., Patten, S.B., Freedman, G., Murray, C.J.L., Vos, T., and Whiteford, H.A. (2013). Burden of depressive disorders by country, sex, age, and year: Findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. PLoS Med 10(11): e1001547.
Gater, R. and Saeed, K. (2015). Scaling up action for mental health in the Eastern Mediterranean region: An overview. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal 21(7): 535–550.
Ghanem, M., Gadallah, M., Meky, F.A., Mourad, S., and El Kholy, G. (2009). National survey of prevalence of mental disorders in Egypt: Preliminary survey. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal 15(1): 65–75.
Ghubash, R., Daradkeh, T., El-Rufaie, O.F., and Abou-Saleh, M.T. (2001). A comparison of the validity of two psychiatric screening questionnaires: The Arabic General Health Questionnaire (AGHQ) and Self-Reporting Questionnaire (SRQ-20) in UAE, using Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis. European Psychiatry 16(2): 122–126.
Goldstone, J.A. (2002). Population and security: How demographic change can lead to violent conflict. Journal of International Affairs 56(1): 3–21.
Gutman, L.M. and Sameroff, A.J. (2004). Continuities in depression from adolescence to young adulthood: Contrasting ecological influences. Development and Psychopathology 16(4): 967–984.
Hardie, J.H. (2014). The consequences of unrealized occupational goals in the transition to adulthood. Social Science Research 48: 196–211.
Hendy, R. (2015). Women’s participation in the Egyptian labor market,1998–2012. In: Assaad, R. and Krafft, C. (eds.). The Egyptian labor market in an era of revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hogan, D.P. and Astone, N.M. (1986). The transition to adulthood. Annual Review of Sociology 12: 109–130.
Kasemy, Z.A., Salama, A.A., Salem, M.E.A., and Negm, N. (2016). Factors related to depression symptoms among working women in Menoufia, Egypt. The Journal of the Egyptian Public Health Association 91(4): 163–168.
Lancet Global Mental Health Group (2007). Scale up services for mental disorders: A call for action. The Lancet 370(9594): 1241–1252.
Masten, A.S., Burt, K.B., Roisman, G.I., Obradović, J., Long, J.D., and Tellegen, A. (2004). Resources and resilience in the transition to adulthood: Continuity and change. Development and Psychopathology 16(4): 1071–1094.
Mokdad, A.H., Forouzanfar, M.H., Daoud, F., El Bcheraoui, C., Moradi-Lakeh, M., Khalil, I., Afshin, A., Tuffaha, M., Charara, R., and Barber, R.M. (2016). Health in times of uncertainty in the eastern Mediterranean region, 1990–2013: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. The Lancet Global Health 4(10): e704–e713.
Mokdad, A.H., Jaber, S., Aziz, M.I.A., AlBuhairan, F., AlGhaithi, A., AlHamad, N.M., Al-Hooti, S.N., Al-Jasari, A., AlMazroa, M.A., AlQasmi, A.M., Alsowaidi, S., Asad, M., Atkinson, C., Badawi, A., Bakfalouni, T., Barkia, A., Biryukov, S., El Bcheraoui, C., Daoud, F., Forouzanfar, M.H., Gonzalez-Medina, D., Hamadeh, R.R., Hsairi, M., Hussein, S.S., Karam, N., Khalifa, S.E.A.H., Khoja, T.A.M., Lami, F., Leach-Kemon, K., Memish, Z.A., Mokdad, A.A., Naghavi, M., Nasher, J., Qasem, M.B.H., Shuaib, M., Thani, A.A.M.A., Thani, M.H.A., Zamakhshary, M., Lopez, A.D., and Murray, C.J.L. (2014). The state of health in the Arab world, 1990–2010: An analysis of the burden of diseases, injuries, and risk factors. The Lancet 383(9914): 309–320.
Mortimer, J.T., Zimmer-Gembeck, M.J., Holmes, M., and Shanahan, M.J. (2002). The process of occupational decision making: Patterns during the transition to adulthood. Journal of Vocational Behavior 61(3): 439–465.
Moussa, S., Kholy, M.E., Enaba, D., Salem, K., Ali, A., Nasreldin, M., Gabal, M., Emadeldin, M., and and Moselhy, H.F. (2015). Impact of political violence on the mental health of school children in Egypt. Journal of Mental Health 24(5): 289–293.
Murray, C.J.L., Vos, T., Lozano, R., Naghavi, M., Flaxman, A.D., Michaud, C., Ezzati, M., Shibuya, K., Salomon, J.A., Abdalla, S., Aboyans, V., Abraham, J., Ackerman, I., Aggarwal, R., Ahn, S.Y., Ali, M.K., AlMazroa, M.A., Alvarado, M., Anderson, H.R., Anderson, L.M., Andrews, K.G., Atkinson, C., Baddour, L.M., Bahalim, A.N., Barker-Collo, S., Barrero, L.H., Bartels, D.H., Basáñez, M.-G., Baxter, A., Bell, M.L., Benjamin, E.J., Bennett, D., Bernabé, E., Bhalla, K., Bhandari, B., Bikbov, B., Abdulhak, A.B., Birbeck, G., Black, J.A., Blencowe, H., Blore, J.D., Blyth, F., Bolliger, I., Bonaventure, A., Boufous, S., Bourne, R., Boussinesq, M., Braithwaite, T., Brayne, C., Bridgett, L., Brooker, S., Brooks, P., Brugha, T.S., Bryan-Hancock, C., Bucello, C., Buchbinder, R., Buckle, G., Budke, C.M., Burch, M., Burney, P., Burstein, R., Calabria, B., Campbell, B., Canter, C.E., Carabin, H., Carapetis, J., Carmona, L., Cella, C., Charlson, F. , Chen, H., Cheng, A.T.-A., Chou, D., Chugh, S.S., Coffeng, L.E., Colan, S.D., Colquhoun, S., Colson, K.E., Condon, J., Connor, M.D., Cooper, L.T., Corriere, M., Cortinovis, M., de Vaccaro, K.C., Couser, W., Cowie, B.C., Criqui, M.H., Cross, M., Dabhadkar, K.C., Dahiya, M., Dahodwala, N., Damsere-Derry, J., Danaei, G., Davis, A., Leo, D.D., Degenhardt, L., Dellavalle, R., Delossantos, A., Denenberg, J., Derrett, S., and Des Jarlais, D.C., et al. (2012). Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions, 1990–2010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. The Lancet 380(9859): 2197–2223.
Obermeyer, C.M., Bott, S., and Sassine, A.J. (2015). Arab adolescents: Health, gender, and social context. Journal of Adolescent Health 57(3): 252–262.
Patel, V., Flisher, A.J., Hetrick, S., and McGorry, P. (2014). Mental health of young people: A global public-health challenge. The Lancet 369(9569): 1302–1313.
Pisarik, C.T. and Shoffner, M.F. (2009). The relationship among work possible selves, socioeconomic position, and the psychological well-being of individuals in early adulthood. Journal of Career Development 35(3): 306–325.
Population Council (2010). Survey of young people in Egypt. Cairo: Population Council.
Raleigh, C., Linke, A., Hegre, H., and Karlsen, J. (2010). Introducing ACLED: An Armed Conflict Location and Event Dataset Special Data Feature. Journal of Peace Research 47(5): 651–660.
Ramadan, N. and Sieverding, M. (2015). Civic engagement, political attitudes, and youth’s visions for the future. In: Roushdy, R. and Sieverding, M. (eds.). Panel survey of young people in Egypt 2014: Generating evidence for policy, programs, and research. Cairo: Population Council.
Reynolds, J.R. and Baird, C.L. (2010). Is there a downside to shooting for the stars? Unrealized educational expectations and symptoms of depression. American Sociological Review 75(1): 151–172.
Roudi-Fahimi, F. and Kent, M.M. (2007). Challenges and opportunities: The population of the Middle East and North Africa. Population Bulletin 62(2): 1–20.
Roushdy, R. and Selwaness, I. (2015). Young people’s labor market outcomes during a period of transition. In: Roushdy, R. and Sieverding, M. (eds.). Panel survey of young people in Egypt 2014: Generating evidence for policy, programs, and research. Cairo: Population Council.
Roushdy, R. and Sieverding, M. (2015). Panel survey of young people in Egypt 2014: Generating evidence for policy, programs, and research. Cairo: Population Council.
Sadler, K. and Gupta, N. (2014). Adolescent global health. In: Gupta, N., Nelson, B.D., Kasper, J., and Hibberd, P.L. (eds.). The MassGeneral hospital for children handbook of pediatric global health. New York: Springer: 121–137.
Salehi-Isfahani, D., Hassine, N.B., and Assaad, R. (2013). Equality of opportunity in educational achievement in the Middle East and North Africa. The Journal of Economic Inequality 12(4): 489–515.
Salem, R. (2015). Changes in the institution of marriage in Egypt from 1998 to 2012. In: Assaad, R. and Krafft, C. (eds.). The Egyptian labor market in an era of revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 162–181.
Salem, R. (2016). The gendered effects of labour market experiences on marriage timing in Egypt. Demographic Research 35(11): 283–314.
Scholte, W.F., Verduin, F., van Lammeren, A., Rutayisire, T., and Kamperman, A.M. (2011). Psychometric properties and longitudinal validation of the self-reporting questionnaire (SRQ-20) in a Rwandan community setting: A validation study. BMC Medical Research Methodology 11: 116.
Schulenberg, J., O’Malley, P.M., Bachman, J.G., and Johnston, L.D. (2005). Early adult transitions and their relation to well-being and substance use. In: Furstenberg, F.F., Rumbaut, R., and Settersten, R. (eds.). On the frontier of adulthood: Theory, research, and public policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 417–453.
Schulenberg, J.E., Sameroff, A.J., and Cicchetti, D. (2004). The transition to adulthood as a critical juncture in the course of psychopathology and mental health. Development and Psychopathology 16(4): 799–806.
Shanahan, M.J. (2000). Pathways to adulthood in changing societies: Variability and mechanisms in life course perspective. Annual Review of Sociology 26: 667–692.
Sieverding, M. and Hassan, R. (2016). ‘Her future is marriage’: Young people’s attitudes towards gender roles and the gender gap in Egypt. Cairo: Population Council.
Singerman, D. (2007). The economic imperatives of marriage: Emerging practices and identities among youth in the Middle East. Washington, D.C.: Wolfensohn Center for Development and Dubai School of Government (Middle East Youth Initiative working paper, No. 6).
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2015). Definition of youth [electronic resource].
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2015). World population prospects: The 2015 revision, DVD edition. New York: UNDESA.
Urdal, H. (2006). A clash of generations? Youth bulges and political violence. International Studies Quarterly 50(3): 607–629.
Vizcarra, B., Hassan, F., Hunter, W.M., Munoz, S.R., Ramiro, L., and De Paula, C.S. (2004). Partner violence as a risk factor for mental health among women from communities in the Philippines, Egypt, Chile, and India. Injury Control and Safety Promotion 11(2): 125–129.
Vuolo, M., Staff, J., and Mortimer, J.T. (2012). Weathering the great recession: Psychological and behavioral trajectories in the transition from school to work. Developmental Psychology 48(6): 1759–1773.
Whiteford, H.A., Degenhardt, L., Rehm, J., Baxter, A.J., Ferrari, A.J., Erskine, H.E., Charlson, F.J., Norman, R.E., Flaxman, A.D., Johns, N., Burstein, R., Murray, C.J., and and Vos, T. (2013). Global burden of disease attributable to mental and substance use disorders: Findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. The Lancet 382(9904): 1575–1586.
World Bank (2016). World development indicators [electronic resource].
World Health Organization (2014). Mental health: A state of well-being [electronic resource].
World Health Organization (2011). Strategy for mental health and substance abuse in the Eastern Mediterranean Region 2012–2016. Geneva: World Health Organization.
World Health Organization (2000). Women’s mental health: An evidence based review. Geneva: World Health Organization.